5. MORE ABOUT THE PROTON AND NEUTRON EPSMs

ANTIPARTICLES AND EINSTEIN SPACE UNITS

Antiparticles are the complete opposite of the corresponding particle. Also, some particles are also their own antiparticle. There are at least two equivalent ways to arrive at the antiparticle EPSM from the particle EPSM. Figure 1-13 shows the first method for the proton to antiproton and neutron to antineutron transformation. Draw the particle EPSM and place a point midway between the particle EPSM and where the antiparticle EPSM will be drawn. Then draw lines from the particle through the point to a position equal distance on the other side of the point. By following this process several times the correct orientation can be determined. The corresponding ESU segments relate to each other though the central point. As seen in the two figures everything in the two EPSMs are the opposite. By maintaining the directional convention for electric charge, all the charges are reversed including the antiproton overall charge. The antiproton has a charge of -1 while the antineutron is still neutral as expected.

Figure 1-13: Proton ~ antiproton EPSMs pair and neutron ~ antineutron EPSMs pair with center points of transformation.

In the second method the antiparticle is constructed in the same form and orientation as the particle except all dimensionalities are reversed in charge. Then after the construction is complete the structure is rotated to align the dimensionalities with the corresponding directions. Figure 1-14 shows the second method just before the antiproton is rotated to properly orientate the dimensionalities. The two methods result in the same antiparticle EPSM.

Figure 1-14: Proton~antiproton EPSMs pair. The antiproton on the right has been made by the second method and still needs to be rotated to orientate the dimensionalities correctly.

d QUARK TO u QUARK DECAY

The neutron decay to proton, electron and antineutrino has also been stated as being the same as a d quark decay to a u quark, electron, and antineutrino. The d quark decay to u quark is supported by EPSM as shown in Figures 1-5 and 1-6. Four of the d quark EPSMs in Figure 1-5 can be made by adding an electron ESU segment to either end of the two u quark EPSMs in Figure 1-6. Thus, it may be more appropriate to consider that there are only four d quarks.

POSITRON

The positron (e+) is the antiparticle to the electron (e-). Some radioactive nuclei decay by releasing a positron and a neutrino and thereby effectively changed a proton to a neutron. The decay is shown below and the resultant EPSMs are shown in Figure 1-15. The EPSM indicates that this cannot be the whole story.

p > n + e⁺ + n_e

Figure 1-15: A proton becomes a neutron though a positive beta decay; however, the two sides of the decay do not balance. Apparently there is more to the decay within EPSM.

Without a little help EPSM does not have the pieces to support this decay process. There is only one place to get the help and that is from space (or an ESU EPSM).

p + ESU > n + e⁺ + n_e

Figure 1-16: An ESU provides the electron and positron. It is assumed that the neutrino and antineutrino came with the ESU.

As shown in Figure 1-16, during a positron decay the ESU provides the electron and antineutrino for the proton to change to a neutron and the ESU provides the positron and neutrino that are released. Thus within EPSM, the "decay" of a proton into a neutron and a positron could be viewed more as a reaction between a proton and an ESU than as a decay.

PROTON VERSUS NEUTRON MASS

The proton and neutron are described as being two states of the same particle. In such a model the proton should have more mass than the neutron because the proton develops a surrounding electric field which adds to the proton's mass. However in reality, the opposite is true; the proton has less mass than the neutron. The mass of the proton is 938 Gev and the mass or the neutron is 940 Gev.

The neutron EPSM naturally indicates that it can be more massive than the proton EPSM. There are more ESU segments in the neutron EPSM than in proton EPSM. EPSM does not consider the proton and neutron to be different states of the same particle. The neutron EPSM is a composite particle of a proton, neutron, and antineutrino. The composite particle has more mass than the proton by itself and any electric field that the proton may generate.

ANOTHER VIEW OF SPIN

As stated earlier, spin is quantized as either half-integral or integral multiples of h/2pi and is usually pictured as a rotation of the particle. However, Stephen Hawking in his book, "A Brief History of Time", provides a description of spin that is quite different. He states, "What spin of a particle really tells us is what the particle looks like from different directions." The following is a summary of his descriptive examples along with elementary particle examples:

Spin 0: like a "dot", looks the same from every direction. Some mesons have 0 spin.

Spin 1: like an "arrow", looks the same after one complete turn. A photon (light) is an example.

Spin 2: like a "double-headed arrow", looks the same after 1/2 turn. Some mesons have spin 2.

Spin 1/2: (no example provided), looks the same after 2 complete turns. Two turns? Now it is seen why no everyday example was provided. Protons, neutrons, electrons, and neutrinos have spin 1/2.

As noted above, Stephen Hawking does not give an everyday macro world example to compare to the spin 1/2 particles; however, he did state that Paul Dirac explained mathematically why particles such as the electron and protons with their spin 1/2 do not look the same after 1 turn. Paul Dirac invented matrix mechanics which lead to the postulation of the positron. Matrices are an ordered set of numbers or operations which follow a defined rules for addition and multiplication. However, EPSM is to be a spatial model and not a mathematical one. First of all one can quickly do away with any notion that one complete rotation of a particle in our macro world would not return it back to its original look. If EPSM were to have a meaning for spin 1/2 it would have to be something other than two complete turns of the proton EPSM.

However, the "2 turns" for spin 1/2 can have a physical meaning if one takes the proton EPSM and "turns" one of the free dimensionalities to the position of another free dimensionalities and also maintain directional accounting for charges for the proton. It is not a straight forward process in that turning the proton EPSM around a single axis does not work. A twist is needed around one axis and followed by a second twist around another axis to shift the free dimensionalities. It takes two twists or "turns" to get a dimensionality from one position to another position within the proton EPSM while still maintain directional accounting for charges for the proton.

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